This is the third in my series of blog posts addressing possible nutrient deficiencies raised by the Weston Price Foundation article “Vegetarianism and Nutrient Deficiencies” by Christopher Masterjohn.
Essential Fatty Acids:
Two essential fatty acids, linolenic and linoleic acid, cannot be synthesized in the body and must be obtained from food. These basic fats, are used to build specialized fats called omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are important in the normal functioning of all tissues of the body.
Deficiencies in these fatty acids lead liver and the kidney problems, reduced growth rates, decreased immune function, depression, and dryness of the skin. Numerous health benefits of fatty acids include reduced heart disease, stroke and breast cancer, and improvement of ulcerative colitis, menstrual pain and joint pain.(1)
Omega-6 fats are derived from linoleic acid which are found in leafy vegetables, seeds, nuts, grains, and vegetable oils. Most diets provide adequate amounts of this fatty acid. Omega-3 fatty acids are derived from linolenic acid. The principal omega-3 is alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), which is then converted into eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenonic acid (DHA) by the body. This makes ALA the only essential omega-3 fatty acid. ALA can be found in many vegetables, beans, nuts, seeds, and fruits. Masterjohn states that vegetarians have lower levels of EPA and DHA than omnivores, vegans have lower levels than vegetarians and cites a study by Rossell which compares British vegetarians and vegans to omnivores.(2)
Oily fish contain omega-3’s, but it also have high amounts of other fats and cholesterol and lacks fiber. Fish are also often high in mercury and other environmental toxins. Fish oils are a popular omega-3 supplement option, but the omega-3s found in fish oils (EPA and DHA) are unstable and tend to decompose and unleash harmful free radicals. Research has demonstrated that taking fish oil supplements does not actually produce significant protection on cardiovascular health.(3)
Research has shown that omega-3s from plant sources are more beneficial for one’s health. Omega-3s are found in a more stable form, ALA, in vegetables, fruits, and beans. Conversion of ALA to the longer chain omega-3s, DHA and EPA, is usually sufficient to maintain tissue function. According to a European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) study, women on vegan diets actually have more long-chain omega-3s in their blood compared with fish-eaters, meat-eaters, and lacto-ovo vegetarians.(4)
It is important to also consume these fatty acids in the proper ratio. Excessive intake of omega-6 fatty acids can inhibit omega-3s. The ideal ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids should be 1:1 to 4:1.8, but most Americans consume these fatty acids at a ratio of 10:1 to 25:1. This is due to the high American intake of processed foods and oils. A low omega-6:omega-3 ratio is desirable for reducing the risk of many chronic diseases. Grinding up flax seeds in your morning smoothie like I did in the Green Smoothie Episode 1, is a great way to get your omega 3’s! (1)
Amino Acids
Master john then goes through some non-essential amino acids. He states that vegetarians may be deficient in carnitine because there is limited availability in plants. The bioavailability of L-carnitine varies due to dietary composition. In fact, there has been more bioavailability found in vegetarians.(5) The bioavailability of L-carnitine in vegetarians who are adapted to low-carnitine diets is higher (66% to 86% of available carnitine) than regular red-meat eaters adapted to high-carnitine diets (54% to 72% of available carnitine).(6) Carnitine is not an essential amino acid. Carnitine can be made from two essential amino acids, lysine and methionine. Carnitine influences carbohydrate metabolism. Aberrations in carnitine regulation are implicated in complications of diabetes mellitus, hemodialysis, trauma, malnutrition, cardiomyopathy, obesity, fasting, drug interactions and endocrine imbalances.(5)
Master john states that taurine is particularly important for nursing infants, since the developing brain contains three to four times as high a concentration of taurine as the adult brain. The serum concentrations of vegans and infants nursing from them are lower than that of their omnivore counterparts.(7) Taurine is not an essential amino acid. Adults produce taurine by a combination of cysteine with the help of pyridoxine (vitamin B6), methionine and vitamin C. Cysteine is found in red peppers, garlic, onions, broccoli, Brussel sprouts, oats, granola and wheat germ. Methionine can be found in a lot of vegan foods including Brazil nuts, sunflower seeds and butter, sesame seeds, oats.(8) I spoke about vitamin B6 in the last post. Vegans can eat complete proteins like soy, hemp seed, quinoa, buckwheat, amaranth regularly to ensure they can synthesize taurine from amino acids in these foods. A paper by Dr. Joel Fuhrman recommends possible supplementation of Taurine for vegan athletes to improve performance of 500 mg twice daily. (9)
Masterjohn then goes on to state that vegetarians have lower levels of creatine than meat-eaters, but vegetarians are not at risk for creatine deficiency anyway. Creatine is another non-essential amino acid. Creatine supplementation is common among athletes Evidence from mostly healthy young adult male subjects shows that exercise performance involving short periods of extremely powerful activity can be enhanced. Potential acute effects of high dose creatine supplementation on body fluid balance has not been fully investigated. An article written by the American College of Sports Medicine article states that “Creatine supplementation exhibits small but significant physiological and performance changes. Increases in performance are realized during very specific exercise conditions. This suggests that the apparent high expectations for performance enhancement, evident by the extensive use of Creatine supplementation, are inordinate.”(10)
Master john states that carnosine is exclusively found in animal products and cites one study showing vegetarians with higher levels of AGEs than omnivores.(11) Carnosine is found in several tissues most notably in muscle. Studies have demonstrated that they possess strong and specific antioxidant properties: preventing peroxidation of model membrane systems and protecting cell membranes from oxidative damage. Other roles include actions as neurotransmitters, modulation of enzymic activities and chelation of heavy metals.(12)
Carnosine is another non-essential amino-acid. It is formed from amino acids beta-alanine and histidine. Carnosine is only found in meat, but both of its constituents are found in a wide variety of plant foods. This is why vegetarian animals like cows have so much in their tissues.(13)
To summarize this week’s blog, basically essential fatty acids can be obtained with a plant-based diet, and none of the amino acids he listed in his article are essential. Therefore, they can be formed from other amino acids that are obtainable on a plant based diet. Stay tuned for next week’s blog post where I will talk about his last concern, cholesterol.
(1) “Essential Fatty Acids.” Physicians Committee of Responsible Medicine. Web. 08 September 2015. <http://www.pcrm.org/health/health-topics/essential-fatty-acids>
(2) Rosell MS, Lloyd-Wright Z, Appleby PN, Sanders TA, Allen NE, Key TJ. Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in plasma in British meat-eating, vegetarian, and vegan men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;82(2):327-34.
(3) Kwak SM, Myung SK, Lee YJ. Efficacy of omega-3 fatty acid supplements (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid) in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis of randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials. Arch Intern Med. 2012;172:986-994.
(4) Welch AA, Shakya-Shrestha S, Lentjes MAH, Wareham NJ, Khaw KT. Dietary intake and status of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in a population of fish-eating and non-fish-eating meat-eaters, vegetarians, and vegans and the precursor-product ratio of a-linolenic acid to long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: results from the EPIC-Norfolk cohort. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;92:1040-1051.
(5) Flanagan J, Simmons PA, Vehige J, Willcox MDP,,Garrett Qian. “Role of Carnitine in Disease.” Nutrition & Metabolism 2010, 7:30.
(6) Rebouche CJ, Chenard CA. “Metabolic fate of dietary carnitine in human adults: identification and quantification of urinary and fecal metabolites.” J Nutr 1991, 121:539-546.
(7) Bender DA. Nutritional Biochemistry of the Vitamins: Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2003).
(8) Butterflies Katz. “What every vegan needs to know to optimize their diet.” Veganism: A truth whose time has come. 03 June 2014. Web. 08 September 2015. <http://thevegantruth.blogspot.com/2014/06/what-every-vegan-needs-to-know-about.html>
(9) Fuhrman J, Ferreri DM. “Fueling the Vegan Athlete.” Curr. Sports Med 2010. 9 (4) 233-241.
(10) Terjung RL, Clarkson P, Eichner ER, Greenhaff PL, Hespel PJ, Israel RG, Kraemer WJ, Meyer RA, Spriet LL, Tarnopolsky MA, Wegenmakers AJ, Williams MH. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 2000. 32(3):706-717.
(11) Sebeková K, Krajcoviová-Kudlácková M, Schinzel R, Faist V, Klavanová J, Heidland A. Plasma levels of advanced glycation end products in healthy, long-term vegetarians and subjects on a western mixed diet. Eur J Nutr. 2001;40(6):275-81.
(12) Quinn PJ, Boldyrev AA, Formazuyk VE. Carnosine: its properties, functions and potential therapeutic applications. Mol Aspects Med. 1992;13(5):379-444.
(13) Andrea Lewis. “Carnosine and Raw Veganism.” Skinny Limits. 02 April 2015. Web. 09 September 2015. <http://www.skinnylimits.com/blog/carnosine-and-raw-veganism/>